Chronotype, Time of Day, and Children's Cognitive Performance in Remote Neuropsychological Assessment.

Research on the influence of chronotype and time of day (TOD) on cognitive performance, especially in children, is limited. We explored potential interactive effects, hypothesizing that performance differs when comparing preferred vs. non-preferred TOD. In total, 76 morning-type (MT = 37) or evening-type (ET = 39) children from the third and fourth grades (48.7% girls; M age = 8.05; SD age = 0.51), identified through the Children Chronotype Questionnaire, completed two 30-min neuropsychological assessment sessions via videoconference on the first (9:00) or last hour (16:00) of the school day. The protocol included neuropsychological tests targeting memory, language, and attention/executive domains. The results revealed an interactive effect of medium size between chronotype and TOD on a Rapid Alternating Stimulus (Naming) Task. MT and ET performed faster in asynchrony conditions (morning for ET; afternoon for MT). Additionally, ET outperformed MT in a Backward Digit Span Task, irrespective of TOD. TOD also influenced performance on an Alternating Verbal Fluency Task, with both MT and ET children performing better in the morning. These results underscore the importance of chronotype and TOD in children's cognitive performance, particularly in working memory and verbal fluency. Children assessed during non-preferred TOD exhibited better performance on some cognitive tasks, challenging the assumption that optimal times always yield superior results.

OpenWMB: An open-source and automated working memory task battery for OpenSesame.

Working memory capacity (WMC) has been measured with a plethora of cognitive tasks. Several preeminent automated batteries of working memory (WM) tasks have been developed recently. However, despite all their advantages, most batteries were programmed in paid platforms and/or only included a single WM paradigm. To address these issues, we developed the OpenWMB, an automated battery comprising seven tasks from three distinct paradigms (complex spans, updating tasks, and binding tasks) that tap into several functional aspects of WM (simultaneous storage and processing, updating, and binding). The battery runs on open-source software (OpenSesame) and is freely available online in a ready-to-download format. The OpenWMB possesses flexible features and includes a data processing script (that converts data into a format ready for statistical analysis). The instrument is available in Portuguese and English. However, we only assessed the psychometric properties of the former version. The Portuguese version presented good internal consistency and considerable internal and predictive validity: all tasks loaded into a single factor. Additionally, the WMC estimate was strongly correlated with a fluid intelligence factor. This study also tried to contribute to the ongoing debate regarding the best method to assess WMC. We computed a permutation analysis to compare the amount of variance shared between a fluid intelligence factor and (1) each WM task, (2) homogenous WMC factors (based on multiple tasks from the same paradigm), and (3) heterogeneous WMC factors (derived from triplets of tasks from different paradigms). Our results suggested that heterogeneous factors provided the best estimates of WMC.

Pushing Backwards: Evaluating Effectiveness of Conservative Treatment of Intestinal Intussusception.

OBJECTIVE: Intestinal intussusception (II) is a common cause for acute abdomen in children, occurring in 0.33 to 0.71 per 1000 children per year. Early diagnosis and treatment are fundamental for prevention of irreversible intestinal damage. The first line of treatment is conservative, with saline reduction enema or air reduction enema. Our goal is to evaluate results with conservative treatment of II in children. METHODS: A retrospective single-center review of all patients with diagnosis of II from January 2014 to December 2019 was performed. Demographics, clinical data, treatment option, and results were assessed. RESULTS: Thirty-eight cases were identified. The mean age was 26 months, and 68% were males. Most presented with abdominal pain (95%) and vomiting (66%), after an average of 30 hours. Rectal bleeding was present in 32% of patients. Abdominal ultrasound was performed in all patients for diagnosis. Conservative treatment was first option in 95% of patients, with a global effectiveness of 83% after 1 attempt. Saline reduction enema was more effective than air reduction enema (88% vs 70%), and patients with successful reduction were younger (24 vs 33 months), but neither reached statistical significance. Two patients had a subsequent II episode within 1 week after hospital discharge. Neither age, sex, symptoms and respective duration, rotavirus inoculation, intussuscepted bowel length, nor technique used was predictive of treatment failure or II relapse. CONCLUSIONS: Conservative treatment in II is a safe and effective option, preventing invasive surgical procedures. Effectiveness of such treatments may be as high as 88% after 1 attempt, with rapid diet reintroduction. Same-day discharge after oral feeding toleration is safe.

Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) Identified Species-Specific SSR and SNP Markers, Allow the Unequivocal Identification of Strawberry Tree (Arbutus unedo L.) Germplasm Accessions and Contribute to Assess Their Genetic Relationships.

The strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.), an evergreen bush to small tree of the Ericaceae family, is a main component of the natural flora of the Mediterranean basin that also grows profusely through the Iberian Peninsula, southwestern France, and Ireland. The small edible red fruits are usually used to produce preserves, jams, and liquors, as the Portuguese "aguardente de medronho". The leaves and fruits have been used for a long time in traditional medicine, and their bioactive compounds are presently the subject of intense research. A strawberry tree germplasm collection was recently established by the company Corte Velada (Odiáxere, Portugal). A set of 50 germplasm accessions was selected for a breeding program. A next-generation sequencing project was performed, resulting in the establishment of the first strawberry tree genome assembly and further identification of 500 SSR and 500 SNP loci. Individual molecular fingerprints for the unequivocal identification of the selected 50 accessions were established based on 71 markers alleles amplified by 4 SSR and 9 SNP markers. The same species-specific markers alleles combined with 61 random amplified markers amplified by 5 RAPD and 5 ISSR primers were used to assess the genetic variability and genetic relationships among the selected accessions.

Management of infantile hemangiomas-experience of a tertiary hospital.

The purpose of the study is to describe the experience of a multidisciplinary team in a tertiary hospital regarding the management of Infantile Hemangiomas (IH). The method employed is a retrospective analysis of patients with IH followed in a tertiary pediatric hospital between January 2010 and May 2022. A total of 393 IH were diagnosed (56.7% female), with a median age of 5 months (interquartile range (IQR), 3-10). Imaging investigation was necessary for diagnosis and for exclusion of other IH in 9.2% and 14.3%, respectively. Focal (74.0%) and superficial (59.7%) lesions were more frequent as was facial location (35.9%). Pre-treatment ulceration or hemorrhage occurred in 6.6%. At follow-up, 87.4% regressed partially and 12.6% completely; 2.7% relapsed. Propranolol was started in 30.0% of cases for a median period of 9 months (IQR, 6-12), mainly due to esthetic concerns (41.9%). Side effects occurred in 8.3% (sleep disturbance in 5.1%). Only 1.7% were refractory and 5.9% had a rebound effect. Eleven patients were treated with topical timolol and 41 underwent surgery. Patients that were treated with propranolol had more risk factors (p = 0.016) and presented deeper lesions (p < 0.001) with a larger diameter (p < 0.001); total IH regression was less frequent (p < 0.001). Since 2020, twice-daily dosage was more frequently prescribed than three times daily (p = 0.007) and inpatient initiation of propranolol decreased (p = 0.750), without significant difference in the incidence of adverse reactions, duration of treatment, and lesion evolution.  Conclusions: Our protocol proved to be safe and feasible in an outpatient setting and twice daily administration of propranolol was effective. The majority of IH showed at least partial regression. Early detection of high-risk IH is paramount and a multidisciplinary assessment by a specialized team is essential for adequate management. What is Known: • IH are the most common vascular tumors in childhood. Although the majority evolves favorably, treatment may be warranted in selected cases. • Early detection of high-risk IH is paramount, and a multidisciplinary assessment by a specialized team is essential for adequate management. What is New: • One-third of our sample was treated with propranolol. These patients had more risk factors and presented deeper lesions with a larger diameter, and tumor total regression was less frequent. • Our results reinforce safety and feasibility of propranolol initiation in an outpatient setting, including twice daily dosage.

Quality of life after otoplasty for prominent ears in children.

AIM: Prominent ears are a common congenital malformation and are associated with low self-esteem, social isolation and diminished school performance. Our goal was to evaluate the influence of otoplasty on children's quality of life (QoL). MATERIAL AND METHODS: Patients submitted to otoplasty from 2016 to 2018 were summoned for a reevaluation. Seventy patients and respective caregivers agreed to participate. Surgical, demographic and clinical data were reviewed from electronic registries. TWO SETS OF INQUIRIES WERE PERFORMED: Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory 4.0 (for parent and child) and an adaptation of the Glasgow Children Benefit Inventory (GCBI-b). Fifteen patients were excluded for incomplete inquiries. RESULTS: Fifty-five patients were included, 70.9% were males. Median age at surgery was 7.7 ±â€¯3.3 years. Aesthetic dissatisfaction was the main previous negative experience. Median self-report quality of life was 85.6% and parent-report was 86.9%. Median GCBI-b was +20.5, indicating an improvement in patients' QoL. Bullying and high parental expectations for life change post-surgery were predictive of higher GCBI-b scores (p < 0.05). Ninety-six percent of parents would recommend surgery to other children. CONCLUSIONS: Otoplasty is a valid treatment option for prominent ears in children,improving not only aesthetics but also health-related QoL.

Assessment of Wild Rocket (Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC.) Germplasm Accessions by NGS Identified SSR and SNP Markers.

Rocket is the common designation for two baby-leaf salad crops of the Brassicaceae family: Eruca sativa (L.) Cav., usually referred to as annual garden rocket, and Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC. commonly named to as perennial wild rocket. E. sativa is used for human consumption since antiquity. However, the growing consumer preference for D. tenuifolia is being accompanied by the fast increase in its production area and commercialization of new cultivars. Nevertheless, the worldwide number of wild rocket accessions maintained in germplasm collections is very reduced, the solution for which situation the project "REMIRucula" intends to contribute, establishing a germplasm collection at the INIAV, Oeiras, Portugal. Herein, we report on the establishment via next generation sequencing (NGS) of the first genome assembly of D. tenuifolia and the identification of specific single sequence repeat (SSR) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) loci for the establishment of specific DNA-markers for this species. A representative set of 87 D. tenuifolia and 3 E. sativa accessions were assessed by 5 SSR and 9 SNP-CAPS markers, allowing a drastic discrimination between both species and the establishment of unequivocal molecular fingerprints for the analyzed accessions. The non-discrimination within six pairs and one trio of D. tenuifolia accessions is discussed.

Feline Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Critical Review of Etiologic Factors.

Feline oral squamous cell carcinoma (FOSCC) is the most common oral neoplasia in cats. This malignant tumor is locally invasive, has a high mortality rate, and its etiology is not yet known. In humans, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma is associated with tobacco smoke, alcohol consumption, and human papillomavirus infection. Herein, a critical review about the potential etiologic factors of FOSCC was performed, considering publications between 2000 and 2022, aiming to synthesize all available scientific evidence regarding this issue. Recommendations of the PRISMA statement and the Cochrane Collaboration were followed and the PubMed database searched by using the MeSH terms MeSH terms "oral", "mouth", "lingual", "labial", "gingiva", "carcinoma", "squamous", and "feline". The selection process for eligible studies was based on specific inclusion and exclusion criteria and the quality of the studies assessed. The initial search resulted in 553 publications, with only 26 of these being included in the review. Sixteen studies were related to viral etiology and nine related to environmental factors such as exposure to tobacco smoke, ectoparasitic products, and the presence of oral comorbidities. When evaluated, feline papillomavirus was detected in 16.2% of samples of FOSCC. In the three studies focused on exposure to tobacco smoke, 35.2% (30/85) of cats with FOSCC had a history of this exposure. The consumption of canned food and the use of deworming collars were associated, in only one publication, with a risk of neoplasia increased by 4.7 and 5.3 times, respectively. Among 485 cats with FOSCC, 6.4% had dental and oral pathology (i.e., periodontal disease or feline chronic gingivostomatitis). The present study demonstrates that the available evidence on the etiology of FOSCC is still limited, however, there has been an increasing interest on this topic. To better understand the role of the possible etiological factors of this aggressive disease, and model for its human counterpart, large, prospective multi-institutional studies are needed.

Fatores determinantes para a excelência no vôlei de praia: o caso de uma dupla de elite / Determining factors for excellence in beach volleyball: the case of an elite pai / Factores determinantes de laexcelenciaenel voleibol de playa: el caso de una pareja de élite

O objetivo deste estudo foi conhecer os fatores determinantes na aquisição, desenvolvimento e manutenção da excelência no Vôlei de Praia (VP) a partir da percepção de uma dupla de atletas de elite e seu técnico. Trata-se de um estudo de caso com abordagem qualitativa dos resultados que se utilizou da entrevista e análise documental para recolha dos dados. Sobre os fatores determinantes da excelência no VP destacaram-se nos fatores primários, o aspecto psicológico, verificado nos elementos disciplina, força de vontade, motivação e foco, seguido pelo tempo de parceria e da preparação física iniciada (prática deliberada). Enquanto nos fatores secundários, o apoio, técnico, infraestrutura, qualidade de material esportivo e financeiro. Conclui-se que a junção dos fatores primários e secundários descritos acima foi essencial para aquisição, desenvolvimento emanutenção da excelência no VP.

The objective of this study was to know the determining factors in the acquisition, development and maintenance of excellence in Beach Volleyball (VP) from the perception of a pair of elite athletes and theircoach. This is a case study with a qualitative approach to the results that used the interview and document analysis for data collection. Regarding the determining factors of excellence in the VP, the psychological aspect stood out in the primary factors,verified in the elements discipline, willpower, motivation and focus, followed by the partnership time and the physical preparation started (deliberate practice). While in secondary factors, support, technical, infrastructure, quality of sports and financial equipment. It is concluded that the combination of the primary and secondary factors described above was essential for the acquisition, development and maintenance of excellence in PV.

El propósito de este estudio fue conocer los factores determinantes en la adquisición, desarrollo y mantenimiento de la excelencia en el Voleibol de Playa (VP) a partir de la percepción de una pareja de deportistas de élite y su entrenador. Este es un estudio de caso con enfoque cualitativo de los resultados que utilizó la entrevista y el análisis de documentos para la recolección de datos. En cuanto a los determinantes de la excelencia en la PV, el aspecto psicológico se destacó en los factores primarios, verificado en los elementos disciplina, fuerza de voluntad, motivación y enfoque, seguido del tiempo de compañerismo y la preparación física iniciada (práctica deliberada). Mientras que en factores secundarios, soporte, técnico, infraestructura, calidad del equipamiento deportivo y financiero. Se concluye que la combinación de los factores primarios y secundarios descritos anteriormente fue fundamental para la adquisición, desarrollo y mantenimiento de la excelencia en el VP.

Compensatory sweating after thoracoscopic sympathectomy for primary focal hyperhidrosis in children: Are there patient-related risk factors?

INTRODUCTION: Compensatory sweating (CS) is a common complication after thoracoscopic sympathectomy (TS) and is mainly associated with surgical technique. Our aim was to identify potential risk-factors for CS following TS for primary focal hyperhidrosis in children. METHODS: A retrospective, single-center review of all bilateral TS was performed between 2017 and 2019. Hyperhidrosis disease severity scale was used for pre-operative severity assessment. Post-operative evaluations were performed after three and six months. RESULTS: More than the 36-month period, 41 patients were submitted to T2-T4 TS, and 25 were females (60.9%). Median age at surgery was 15.5 years. CS was identified at the 3rd month in 17 (41%) children with most in the dorsolumbar region (56%). By the 6th month, there was a significant reduction in CS (41 to 32%, p = 0.02). The probability of resolution of CS by 6 months is about 50% in both the dorsolumbar and abdominal regions. Neither age, gender, body mass index, family history, or concomitant illnesses seemed to influence CS (p > 0.05). Axillary hyperhidrosis appears to be associated with the development of dorsolumbar CS (p = 0.037). CONCLUSION: Thoracoscopic sympathectomy for PFH is a safe and effective procedure, but compensatory sweating can be a common and debilitating side effect. Age, gender, and body mass index do not appear to influence CS. Axillary hyperhidrosis may be related to the development of dorsolumbar CS. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

A Non-Rogue Mutant Line Induced by ENU Mutagenesis in Paramutated Rogue Peas (Pisum sativum L.) Is Still Sensitive to the Rogue Paramutation.

The spontaneously emerging rogue phenotype in peas (Pisum sativum L.), characterized by narrow and pointed leaf stipula and leaflets, was the first identified case of the epigenetic phenomenon paramutation. The crosses of homozygous or heterozygous (e.g., F1) rogue plants with non-rogue (wild type) plants, produce exclusively rogue plants in the first and all subsequent generations. The fact that the wild phenotype disappears forever, is in clear contradiction with the Mendelian rules of inheritance, a situation that impedes the positional cloning of genes involved in this epigenetic phenomenon. One way of overcoming this obstacle is the identification of plant genotypes harboring naturally occurring or artificially induced neutral alleles, non-sensitive to paramutation. So far, such alleles have never been described for the pea rogue paramutation. Here, we report the induction via 1-ethyl-1-nitrosourea (ENU) mutagenesis of a non-rogue revertant mutant in the rogue cv. Progreta, and the completely unusual fixation of the induced non-rogue phenotype through several generations. The reversion of the methylation status of two previously identified differentially methylated genomic sequences in the induced non-rogue mutant, confirms that the rogue paramutation is accompanied by alterations in DNA methylation. Nevertheless, unexpectedly, the induced non-rogue mutant showed to be still sensitive to paramutation.

Pediatric Burns With Cyanoacrylate Glue: An Inconspicuous Danger.

Burns are a common cause of pediatric injury and represent significant morbidity and mortality in this age group. In children, most burns are thermal, resulting from exposure to a hot surface, liquid, or fire. Cyanoacrylate is a liquid compound commonly found in households, mainly in "superglue" and nail glue. This compound solidifies through an exothermic reaction that is magnified when in contact with certain fibers that act as catalysts, such as cotton. In these circumstances, intense heat is produced in the contact area, potentially causing severe thermal burns. Despite its widespread availability, there is a paucity of safety information about cyanoacrylate and its role as a cause for burns. In the literature, only 18 cases of cyanoacrylate burns are reported in children. We present two cases of pediatric burns with cyanoacrylate and a review of the literature.

The Control and Prevention of COVID-19 Transmission in Children: A Protocol for Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: The pandemic following the rapid spread of the new SARS-CoV-2 virus has hit all continents and caused thousands of deaths worldwide. Evidence has been published on epidemiological and clinical characteristics of population groups considered at risk; however, information for the other population groups, especially for the child population, is needed. In this context, this protocol describes a systematic review that will aim to identify the evidence on control and prevention of COVID-19 transmission among children and adolescents, as well as to describe the epidemiological profile and clinical and immunological characteristics of COVID-19 in this population. METHODS: This protocol will be developed in accordance with PRISMA-P. The searches will be conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, EMBASE, and Scopus, seeking clinical trials. Observational studies and case reports with Children and adolescents (≤19 years) infected with SARS-CoV-2 will be included whether they report information on the control of prevention and COVID-19 transmission. Two independent researchers will perform the selection of articles, removal of duplication, and screening by Rayyan QCRI application. Cochrane's RoB 2.0, ROBINS-I, and CASP tools will be used to assess the risk of bias. Meta-analysis, subgroup analyses, and/or descriptive analyses will be carried out based on the data conditions included. RESULTS: A high-quality synthesis of the available evidences on the epidemiological profile, the clinical and immunological characteristics involved in children, and adolescents diagnosed with COVID-19, as well as the participation of this population in the transmission dynamics of SARS-CoV-2 will be provided. CONCLUSION: This systematic review has an important relevance in the current context because it has a great potential to help the development of new control and prevention strategies in the pediatric population. RECORD OF SYSTEMATIC REVIEW: CRD42020179263.

The Effects of Exercise on BDNF Levels in Adolescents: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis.

The aim of this study was to analyze the evidence available in the literature about the effects of exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in adolescents. The literature searches were conducted in PubMed, Embase, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, SportDiscus, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) and CINAHL. Randomized controlled trials and non-randomized controlled trials performed with adolescents (10-19 years) who underwent different exercise programs and who evaluated BDNF levels before and after the intervention were included. We included six studies, four RCTs and two non-RCTs in the systematic review with a total of 407 adolescents. In two randomized trials and one non-RCT, the intervention groups showed significant improvements in BDNF levels compared with the control group. The results presented in the meta-analysis indicate that despite the positive effect in favor of the intervention, there were no significant differences (standardized mean difference 0.28 ng/mL, 95% confidence interval -0.28 to 0.85; p = 0.32, I² = 0%). The results presented in our review indicate that aerobic exercise programs practiced in moderate- or high-intensity are promising strategies to increase BDNF levels in adolescents. However, further studies are required to support this finding.

Can people self-select an exercise intensity sufficient to enhance muscular strength during weight training?: A systematic review protocol of intervention studies.

BACKGROUND: Previous studies have reported that self-selection of the training intensity can be an interesting strategy to improve adherence in aerobic exercise programs. However, its effectiveness with weight training has not been systematically reviewed and remains unclear. In this study, we will describe a systematic review protocol that aims to investigate if people are able to self-select an intensity during weight training sufficient to enhance muscular strength. METHODS: This protocol is guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Protocols. In this study, we will search the following electronic databases: PubMed, Science Direct, Scopus, Web of Science and SPORTDiscus. Intervention studies with at least one weight training session performed at self-selected intensity, with people from both genders and all age ranges will be included. The Downs & Black checklist will be used for methodological quality assessment. Two experienced reviewers will independently perform the selection of studies, data extraction, and evaluation of the methodological quality. CONCLUSION: This will be the first systematic review describing the results of weight training intervention studies with self-selected intensity. This study will provide high-quality and reliable evidence for health professionals and may direct methodological recommendations for further studies. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42019120323.

Effects of exercise on the levels of BDNF and executive function in adolescents: A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis.

BACKOGROUND: Evidence available in the literature suggests that physical exercise increases the release of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in humans and may possibly be related to improvements in executive function. However, studies of this phenomenon in adolescents are still scarce. The objective of this work is to describe the protocol for a systematic review (SR) and meta-analysis of interventional studies aiming to determine the effect of physical exercise on BDNF levels and executive function in adolescents. METHODS: This protocol is guided by the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Protocols (PRISMA-P) and by the Cochrane Handbook of Systematic Reviews of Interventions. The databases to be searched are PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), and CINAHL. Interventional studies conducted on adolescents with different exercise protocols and evaluations of BDNF levels and executive function in pre- and post-intervention periods will be included in the systematic review. The characteristics of the studies, participants, and main results will be described, then the evaluation of the risk of biases and the level of evidence obtained by the protocol will be assessed. The selection of studies, data extraction, and evaluation of the methodological quality will be performed by 2 experienced reviewers independently. CONCLUSION: The systematic review will present the effects of the practice of physical exercises on the BDNF and executive function levels. The results will strengthen the interventions with the focus on the brain health of adolescents through general orientations and the evidences described shall direct future research. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42018110683.

Dietary intervention and health in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus: A systematic review of the evidence.

Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the scientific evidence of dietary intervention, either through diet or supplementation, and its effects on the health of patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Methods: Literature searches were conducted using Scopus, PubMed, BioMed Central and Science Direct databases. The terms used for the search were diet, nutritional support, nutrition therapy and systemic lupus erythematosus. Results: Eleven studies with interventions related to supplementation of omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D and turmeric, as well as changes in diet composition, such as low glycaemic index diet were identified. Conclusions: The studies evidenced that omega-3 supplementation reduced inflammation, disease activity, endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress; vitamin D supplementation increased serum levels, reduced inflammatory and hemostatic markers; turmeric supplementation reduced proteinuria, hematuria and systolic blood pressure; and low glycaemic index diet caused weight loss and reduced fatigue.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Neurocognitive Measures in Healthy Young Adults: The Relation of Executive Functions with Other Neurocognitive Functions.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to investigate the factor structure of a set of neurocognitive tests theoretically assessing executive functions (EF), verbal abilities (VA), and processing speed (PS). This study extended previous research by analyzing if each test is better explained by the specific factor to which it theoretically belongs or by a more general neurocognitive factor; and also by analyzing the relations between the neurocognitive factors. METHODS: Using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) we examined the factor structure of nine neurocognitive tests (EF: Working Memory, Tower, Divided Attention, Stroop, and Verbal Fluency tests; VA: Word List and Confrontation Naming tests; PS: Coding and Telephone Search tests) in a nonclinical sample (N = 90; 18-33 years old, 76 women). We tested five factor models of neurocognitive functioning: a one-factor model; two models with two-correlated factors; and two models with three-correlated factors. RESULTS: A three-correlated-factor model, with EF, VA, and PS factors, was the most suitable for our neuropsychological data. The Verbal Fluency test was better explained by the VA factor rather than by the EF factor. The EF factor was correlated with the PS factor, but not with the VA factor. CONCLUSIONS: Most of the neurocognitive measures used in the present study loaded in the expected factors (with the exception of the Verbal Fluency that was apparently more related to VA). EF and PS represent related but separable functions. Our results highlight the need for a careful interpretation of test scores since performance on one test usually requires multiple functions.